Crafted from a stone called steatite, Harappan seals typically feature animal motifs and symbols from a script that has yet to be deciphered. Despite the mystery surrounding the script, archaeologists have gleaned significant insights into the lives of the people inhabiting the region through the examination of their dwellings, pottery, jewelry, tools, and seals – collectively known as archaeological evidence.
This evidence serves as a window into the Harappan civilization, shedding light on various aspects of their society. However, while archaeological findings provide valuable insights, interpretations of these discoveries are subject to change as new evidence emerges. Although there are still unknown aspects of the civilization that may remain elusive, ongoing research continues to deepen our understanding of the Harappan civilization!
Beginnings
Before the emergence of the Mature Harappan civilization, the region was inhabited by several distinct archaeological cultures. These cultures were characterized by unique pottery styles, signs of agricultural and pastoral activities, and evidence of craftsmanship. Typically, settlements during this period were relatively small in size, lacking significant large structures. There seems to have been a notable transition between the Early Harappan and the Harappan civilization, marked by widespread burning at certain sites and the abandonment of specific settlements.
Subsistence Strategies
If you examine Maps 1 and 2, you’ll notice that the Mature Harappan culture evolved within the regions previously occupied by the Early Harappan cultures. These cultures shared certain commonalities, including subsistence strategies. The Harappans had a diverse diet, incorporating various plant and animal products, with evidence derived from charred grains and seeds found at archaeological sites. Archaeo-botanists specialize in studying these ancient plant remains. Grains discovered at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea, sesame, and millets, with rice being relatively rare. Animal bones unearthed at Harappan sites indicate domesticated species like cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, and pig, alongside bones of wild animals like boar, deer, and gharial. The presence of fish and fowl bones suggests the inclusion of aquatic and avian resources in their diet.
Regarding agricultural practices, it’s challenging to reconstruct precise techniques. Terracotta models of plows found at various sites imply the use of oxen for plowing. Evidence from Kalibangan suggests the cultivation of multiple crops in adjacent furrows. While stone blades and metal tools may have been utilized for harvesting, the specifics remain uncertain. Given that most Harappan sites were situated in semi-arid regions, irrigation was likely essential for agriculture. While traces of canals have been discovered at certain sites, like Shortughai in Afghanistan, evidence of canal systems in Punjab or Sind is scarce. Archaeologists speculate that ancient canals may have silted up over time, and water from wells and reservoirs, such as those found in Dholavira, Gujarat, might have supplemented irrigation efforts.
Mohenjodaro A Planned Urban Centre
Mohenjodaro, one of the most prominent urban centers of the Harappan civilization, offers insight into their unique urban planning and architecture. Unlike Harappa, the first discovered site which suffered extensive damage due to brick theft, Mohenjodaro’s structures were better preserved. The settlement is divided into the Citadel and the Lower Town, with the Citadel being elevated and walled off from the Lower Town. The Citadel featured buildings constructed on mud brick platforms, while the Lower Town also had walled sections with buildings on platforms.
The layout of Mohenjodaro indicates meticulous planning, with standardized bricks used for construction. The drainage system, a hallmark of Harappan cities, was carefully designed with streets and houses connected to a network of drains. Residential buildings in the Lower Town typically had courtyards, emphasizing privacy with no windows along ground-level walls. Each house had its own bathroom with drains connected to street drains, and many also had wells, with approximately 700 estimated wells in Mohenjodaro.
The Great Bath, a notable structure within the Citadel, was a large rectangular tank surrounded by a corridor. Steps led into the tank, which was waterproofed with bricks and gypsum mortar. Adjacent to the bath were rooms with bathrooms, each connected to a drain. The purpose of the Great Bath, along with other structures in the Citadel, suggests its significance in religious or ritual practices.
Tracking Social Differences
To discern potential social or economic disparities within a civilization, archaeologists often analyze burial practices. Unlike the grand pyramids of Egypt, which served as royal tombs, Harappan burials typically involved placing the deceased in pits, sometimes lined with bricks, though the significance of such variations remains uncertain. Graves occasionally contained pottery and ornaments, suggesting a belief in afterlife provisions. Jewelry has been unearthed in both male and female graves, with notable discoveries like a male burial containing intricate ornaments near the skull, including shell rings, a jasper bead, and numerous microbeads. While some burials included copper mirrors, the overall pattern suggests a reluctance to inter valuable items with the dead.
Another approach to discerning social stratification involves examining artifacts categorized as utilitarian or luxury items. Utilitarian objects, such as pottery and tools made from common materials, are widespread throughout settlements. Conversely, luxury items are often rare, made from expensive materials, or crafted using sophisticated techniques. For instance, small faience pots, likely considered precious due to their intricate production process, were predominantly found in larger settlements like Mohenjodaro and Harappa rather than smaller ones like Kalibangan. Similarly, gold artifacts, symbolizing rarity and value, were typically found in hoards rather than individual burials.
Finding Out About Craft Production
Chanhudaro, a small settlement of less than 7 hectares, contrasted starkly with the sprawling Mohenjodaro, primarily serving as a center for various craft productions. Craftsmanship at Chanhudaro encompassed bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making, and weight-making. Beads were crafted from a diverse range of materials, including carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite, copper, bronze, gold, shell, faience, and terracotta. These beads displayed various shapes and decorations, highlighting the artisans’ skill and creativity. Craft techniques varied according to the materials used; for instance, steatite beads were molded from a steatite powder paste, allowing for versatile shapes. The production process for carnelian involved chipping nodules into rough shapes, followed by fine flaking, grinding, polishing, and drilling. Specialized drills discovered at sites like Chanhudaro, Lothal, and Dholavira shed light on ancient technology.
Nageshwar and Balakot, situated near the coast, specialized in shell object production, such as bangles and ladles, which were distributed to other settlements. Similarly, finished products from Chanhudaro and Lothal likely made their way to larger urban centers like Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
To identify craft production centers, archaeologists typically seek raw materials, tools, unfinished objects, rejects, and waste material. Waste is particularly indicative of craft activity, with discarded pieces serving as valuable clues to production sites. While some craft activities were centralized in specialized centers like Chanhudaro, evidence suggests that larger cities such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa also engaged in craft production alongside their other urban functions.
Strategies for Procuring Materials
The Harappans utilized a variety of materials for craft production, sourcing them both locally and from distant regions. While materials like clay were readily available in the alluvial plain, others such as stone, timber, and metal had to be obtained from outside areas. Terracotta toy models of bullock carts hint at the importance of land routes for transporting goods and people, while riverine routes along the Indus and its tributaries, as well as coastal routes, were likely utilized as well.
To acquire raw materials, the Harappans established settlements near natural sources, such as shell-rich areas like Nageshwar and Balakot, or regions with specific stones like lapis lazuli in Shortughai, Afghanistan, and carnelian in Bharuch, Gujarat. Expeditions may have been sent to regions like Khetri in Rajasthan for copper and south India for gold, establishing communication with local communities. Evidence of such contact is seen in occasional finds of Harappan artifacts in these areas, indicating trade and exchange networks.
Recent archaeological discoveries suggest that copper may have been obtained from Oman, as chemical analyses show similarities between Omani copper and Harappan artifacts. Vessels found in Oman, coated with a thick layer of black clay similar to those used by the Harappans, suggest a reciprocal exchange, possibly with Omani copper traded for Harappan goods. Mesopotamian texts mentioning regions like Dilmun, Magan, and Meluhha, possibly referring to Bahrain, Oman, and the Harappan region respectively, further indicate long-distance contacts. Mesopotamian texts also describe products from Meluhha, suggesting trade in carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and various types of wood. Depictions of ships and boats on seals, along with references to Meluhha as a land of seafarers, indicate that communication with regions like Oman, Bahrain, and Mesopotamia likely occurred via sea routes.
Seals, Script, Weight
Seals and sealings played a crucial role in facilitating long-distance communication and ensuring the security of goods during transportation. A bag of goods would have its mouth tied with rope, and wet clay with one or more seals pressed onto it would be affixed to the knot. If the bag arrived with its sealing intact, it indicated that it had not been tampered with, and the sealing also revealed the identity of the sender.
Harappan seals typically feature a line of writing, likely containing the name and title of the owner. Additionally, the motif, often depicting an animal, may have conveyed meaning to those who couldn’t read. While the Harappan script remains undeciphered, it’s evident that it wasn’t alphabetical due to the large number of signs, estimated to be between 375 and 400. The script was likely written from right to left, as indicated by variations in spacing on seals.
Writing has been found on various objects, including seals, copper tools, jar rims, tablets made of copper and terracotta, jewelry, bone rods, and even ancient signboards. This suggests the possibility of widespread literacy, and it’s conceivable that there was writing on perishable materials as well.
Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights, typically made of chert and cubical in shape. Lower denominations of weights followed a binary system, while higher denominations used the decimal system. Smaller weights were likely used for weighing jewelry and beads, and metal scale-pans have also been discovered.
Ancient Authority
Complex decisions were evidently made and executed within Harappan society, as indicated by the remarkable uniformity of Harappan artifacts like pottery, seals, weights, and bricks. Notably, even though bricks were not produced in a centralized manner, they maintained a consistent ratio throughout the region, from Jammu to Gujarat. Settlements were strategically established in specific locations for various purposes, and labor was organized for brickmaking and the construction of large-scale structures.
The question arises: who coordinated these activities? When examining centers of power or depictions of authority in archaeological records, there are no straightforward answers. While a large building at Mohenjodaro was identified as a palace by archaeologists, no extraordinary discoveries were associated with it. A stone statue, known as the “priest-king,” has been labeled as such due to parallels with Mesopotamian history, but the actual political power of such figures remains unclear.
Opinions among archaeologists vary regarding the nature of governance in Harappan society. Some suggest that it was egalitarian, with everyone enjoying equal status, while others propose the existence of multiple rulers, with different centers like Mohenjodaro and Harappa possibly having separate rulers. However, the prevailing view leans towards the idea of a single state, considering the uniformity in artifacts, planned settlements, standardized brick sizes, and the strategic establishment of settlements near sources of raw materials. This theory seems most plausible, as it’s unlikely that entire communities could collectively coordinate and implement such intricate decisions.
The End of the Civilization
Around 1800 BCE, most of the Mature Harappan sites in areas like Cholistan were deserted, while there was a population expansion into new settlements in regions like Gujarat, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh. The few Harappan sites that remained occupied after 1900 BCE underwent a transformation in material culture, with the disappearance of distinctive artifacts such as weights, seals, and special beads. Writing, long-distance trade, and craft specialization also vanished. There was a significant reduction in the quantity and variety of materials used for manufacturing, and house construction techniques deteriorated, with fewer large public structures being built. Overall, the material remains and settlements indicate a shift towards a rural way of life in what are termed “Late Harappan” or “successor cultures.”
Various explanations have been proposed for these changes, including climatic shifts, deforestation, excessive floods, river migrations, and landscape overuse. While some of these factors may have affected specific settlements, they fail to account for the collapse of the entire civilization. It seems that a unifying element, possibly the Harappan state, ceased to exist. This is evidenced by the disappearance of seals, script, distinctive artifacts, the transition from a standardized weight system to local weights, and the decline and abandonment of urban centers. It would take over a millennium for new cities to emerge in a completely different region of the subcontinent.
Discovering the Harappan Civilization
The discovery of the Harappan civilization by archaeologists involved a gradual process of recognition and understanding. Initially, when Harappan cities fell into ruin, people forgot about them, and later generations encountered strange artifacts occasionally unearthed by natural processes like floods, erosion, or agricultural activities.
The first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Cunningham, conducted excavations in the mid-nineteenth century. However, his focus was primarily on the archaeology of later periods, and he overlooked the significance of Harappan artifacts. Cunningham’s interest lay in the archaeology of the Early Historic period, and he relied heavily on written accounts, particularly those of Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, to guide his investigations. Consequently, he failed to recognize the antiquity of Harappan artifacts and misinterpreted them within the context of his own framework.
It was not until the early twentieth century that archaeologists like Daya Ram Sahni and Rakhal Das Banerji unearthed Harappan seals in layers much older than those of the Early Historic period. This realization led to the recognition of a new ancient civilization in the Indus Valley. In 1924, John Marshall, then Director-General of the ASI, officially announced the discovery of this civilization to the world. Marshall’s approach differed from Cunningham’s in that he was more interested in understanding the everyday life of ancient people. However, Marshall’s excavation methods, which focused on uniform horizontal units, led to the loss of valuable contextual information.
It was R.E.M. Wheeler, who succeeded Marshall as Director-General in 1944, who rectified this issue by emphasizing the importance of following the stratigraphy of archaeological sites. Wheeler introduced military precision to archaeological practices and emphasized the need for systematic excavation methods.
Since then, Harappan archaeology has seen significant advancements, with Indian and international specialists collaborating on excavations and employing modern scientific techniques to analyze artifacts and environmental remains. Ongoing explorations promise to shed further light on the complexities of the Harappan civilization in the future.
Problems of Piecing Together The Past
Understanding the ancient Harappan civilization relies more on material evidence than on deciphering their script. Archaeologists analyze various artifacts such as pottery, tools, ornaments, and household items to reconstruct aspects of Harappan life. However, organic materials like cloth, leather, wood, and reeds typically decompose over time, leaving behind only durable materials such as stone, burnt clay, and metal.
It’s essential to recognize that intact artifacts found today are often accidental discoveries, as broken or useless objects would have been discarded or recycled in the past. Archaeologists classify these artifacts based on material and function. They assess whether an object served as a tool, ornament, or had a ritual purpose, often drawing comparisons with present-day objects and examining the context of their discovery.
Interpreting religious practices presents particular challenges for archaeologists. Early interpretations often assigned religious significance to certain artifacts, such as terracotta figurines and stone statuary. Structures like the Great Bath and fire altars were also considered ritualistic. Seals with depictions of ritual scenes or plant motifs were interpreted as indications of religious beliefs, with some animals depicted on seals considered mythical.
Attempts to reconstruct Harappan religion often rely on parallels with later traditions, such as those found in Hinduism. However, this approach can be speculative, as it assumes continuity between ancient and later religious practices. For example, depictions of a seated figure surrounded by animals, interpreted as “proto-Shiva,” may not accurately align with early descriptions of the god Rudra in the Rigveda. Thus, interpretations of Harappan religious symbols require cautious consideration and may not always correspond neatly with later religious traditions.
Share your thoughts in the comments
Please Login to comment...