Chapter 4: New Religious Traditions| Class 12 History Notes

By the first century CE, there is evidence of changes in Buddhist ideas and practices. Early Buddhist teachings had given great importance to self-effort in achieving Nibbana. Besides, the Buddha was regarded as a human being who attained enlightenment and Nibbana through his efforts. However, gradually the idea of a savior emerged. It was believed that he was the one who could ensure salvation. Simultaneously, the concept of the Bodhisatta also developed.

Development of Mahayana Buddhism

By the first century CE, there were notable shifts in Buddhist beliefs and practices. Early Buddhism emphasized individual effort in achieving enlightenment (nibbana), viewing the Buddha as a human who attained enlightenment through his own endeavors. However, over time, the concept of a savior emerged, believed to guarantee salvation.

Concurrently, the idea of Bodhisattvas developed. Bodhisattvas were seen as compassionate beings accumulating merit not for personal enlightenment but to aid others. Worship of Buddha and Bodhisattva images became integral to this tradition.

This evolving perspective was termed Mahayana, signifying the “great vehicle.” Followers of these beliefs referred to the older tradition as Hinayana or the “lesser vehicle.”

Growth of Puranic Hinduism

The concept of a savior was not exclusive to Buddhism; similar ideas emerged within Hindu traditions such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism. Vaishnavism centered around the worship of Vishnu as the principal deity, while Shaivism focused on Shiva as the chief god. Both traditions emphasized devotion (bhakti) to a chosen deity, envisioning a loving bond between devotees and their gods.

In Vaishnavism, various cults formed around the avatars or incarnations of Vishnu. Ten avatars were recognized, believed to manifest whenever the world faced threats from evil forces. Different regions favored different avatars, contributing to a sense of unity within the tradition by recognizing these diverse manifestations as forms of Vishnu. Sculptures depicted these avatars and other deities, each representing a complex set of ideas through symbols like headdresses, ornaments, and weapons.

Shiva, in Shaivism, was often symbolized by the linga, although representations in human form also existed. Understanding the meanings behind these sculptures requires familiarity with the stories found in the Puranas, compiled by Brahmanas around the middle of the first millennium CE. These texts contained ancient stories about gods and goddesses, often written in simple Sanskrit verse and meant for oral transmission to all, including women and Shudras.

The content of the Puranas evolved through interactions among various groups, including priests, merchants, and common people who shared ideas and beliefs as they traveled. For example, the worship of Vasudeva-Krishna, a significant deity in the Mathura region, spread to other parts of the country over centuries.

Building Temples

During the period when stupas like those at Sanchi were taking shape, the construction of the earliest temples to house images of deities was also underway. These early temples consisted of a small square room known as the garbhagriha, where worshippers could enter through a single doorway to offer their prayers to the central deity’s image. Over time, a tall structure called the shikhara was erected over the central shrine. Temple walls were often adorned with sculptures. As time progressed, temples became more elaborate, featuring assembly halls, large walls and gateways, and provisions for water supply.

An interesting characteristic of early temples was the practice of hewing them out of large rocks, creating artificial caves. This tradition, dating back to the third century BCE, originated under the orders of Emperor Asoka for renouncers belonging to the Ajivika sect. This tradition underwent various transformations over time, culminating in the eighth century with the carving of entire temples, such as the Kailashnatha temple dedicated to Shiva.

An inscription on a copperplate captures the astonishment of the chief sculptor upon completing the temple at Ellora, expressing a sense of wonderment and accomplishment: “Oh how did I make it!” This inscription reflects the awe-inspiring nature of the temple’s construction and the immense effort put into its creation.

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Chapter 4: New Religious Traditions- FAQs

Why were the Buddhist monks known as bhikkhus?

These monks lived simply, possessing only the essential requisites for survival, such as a bowl to receive food once a day from the laity. As they lived on alms, they were known as bhikkhus.

What were the features of early temples?

Early temples featured small square chambers (garbhagriha) housing deity images, with elaborate superstructures (shikhara) gradually added to enhance their grandeur and visibility.

What are Puranas?

The Puranas, composed in simple Sanskrit verse, served as repositories of mythological lore accessible to all segments of society, fostering the dissemination of religious beliefs and practices across regions.

What does the Mahayana Budhdhist practice?

Mahayana practitioners embraced the worship of Buddha and Bodhisattva images as integral to their spiritual practice, distinguishing their tradition as the “great vehicle” (Mahayana) compared to the “lesser vehicle” (Hinayana) of early Buddhism.

What is Vaishnavism and Shaivism?

Vaishnavism centered around the worship of Vishnu and his avatars, each revered for their divine role in preserving cosmic order and defeating evil forces threatening the universe.

Shaivism, on the other hand, revered Shiva as the supreme deity, symbolized by the linga and occasionally depicted in anthropomorphic form, reflecting a diverse array of theological interpretations and practices.