Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Cultural Developments| Class 12 History Notes

In this chapter, we embark on a journey spanning a millennium to explore the insights of philosophers as they sought to comprehend their world. We will delve into how their ideas were transmitted through oral and written texts, as well as expressed in architectural marvels and sculptures, reflecting the enduring impact of their thoughts on society.

Let us learn more about Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Cultural Developments!

Timeline

Year	Event
468 B.C.	Mahavira passed away at the age of 72 and attained Nirvana.
1st century B.C.E.	Jainism enjoyed the patronage of the Kalinga king Kharavela.
4th century B.C.E.	Jainism spread to Kalinga in Orissa (Odisha).
563 B.C.E.	Gautama Buddha was born in a Shakya Kshatriya family in Kapilavastu.
487 B.C.E.	The First Buddhist Council.
387 B.C.E.	The Second Buddhist Council.
251 B.C.	The Third Buddhist Council.

A Glimpse of Sanchi

In the 19th century, Europeans showed great interest in the stupa at Sanchi. The French even sought permission from Shahjehan Begum to take away the best-preserved eastern gateway for display in a museum in France. Similarly, some Englishmen entertained similar intentions. However, both the French and the English ultimately settled for carefully crafted plaster-cast replicas, allowing the original gateway to remain at the site under the jurisdiction of the Bhopal state.

The rulers of Bhopal, including Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum, provided financial support for the preservation of the ancient site. John Marshall, recognizing their contributions, dedicated his significant volumes on Sanchi to Sultan Jehan Begum. She not only funded the construction of the museum and guesthouse at the site but also supported the publication of Marshall’s volumes. Therefore, the survival of the stupa complex owes much to wise decisions and a stroke of luck in avoiding the attention of railway contractors, builders, and collectors seeking artifacts for European museums. The discovery of Sanchi has greatly enriched our understanding of early Buddhism and serves as a testament to the successful restoration and preservation efforts by the Archaeological Survey of India.

The Great Stupa at Sanchi, situated atop a hill, commands attention as a majestic complex. Travelers passing by train from Delhi to Bhopal can request a brief stop at the Sanchi station, providing a glimpse of the stupa complex. Upon visiting, one can observe various structures, including a large mound and a temple constructed in the fifth century.

The significance of this monument lies in its historical and religious importance. Questions arise regarding its construction, contents, and the individuals or entities responsible for its creation. Through an exploration of texts, sculptures, architecture, and inscriptions, we can uncover the fascinating story of Sanchi and delve into the background of the early Buddhist tradition.

The Background: Sacrifices and Debates

The mid-first millennium BCE marked a significant turning point in world history, witnessing the emergence of notable thinkers across different regions. Figures such as Zarathustra in Iran, Kong Zi in China, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle in Greece, and Mahavira and Gautama Buddha in India sought to unravel the mysteries of existence and explore the relationship between humanity and the cosmic order. This period also witnessed the rise of new kingdoms and cities, alongside transformations in social and economic life in the Ganga valley, which these thinkers endeavored to comprehend.

The sacrificial tradition, deeply rooted in pre-existing religious beliefs and practices, was prevalent during this time. The Rigveda, compiled between approximately 1500 and 1000 BCE, contained hymns praising various deities, notably Agni, Indra, and Soma, and these hymns were recited during sacrificial rituals. Initially, sacrifices were performed collectively, but later, from around 1000 BCE onwards, some were conducted by household heads for the welfare of their families. Elaborate sacrifices like the rajasuya and ashvamedha were undertaken by chiefs and kings, with Brahmana priests overseeing the rituals.

As intellectual curiosity grew, new questions regarding the meaning of life, the concept of life after death, and the possibility of rebirth emerged. Ideas found in texts like the Upanishads, dating from the sixth century BCE onwards, reflect this curiosity and philosophical inquiry into the nature of ultimate reality. Debates and discussions among various philosophical schools were common, with Buddhist texts mentioning as many as 64 sects or schools of thought. Teachers traveled widely, engaging in debates to convince others of the validity of their philosophies. Figures like Mahavira and Buddha challenged the authority of the Vedas and emphasized individual agency, advocating for liberation from worldly existence, contrasting with the Brahmanical belief in the determinative role of caste and gender in one’s life.

Beyond Wordly Pleasures- The Message of Mahavira

The fundamental tenets of Jainism predate the birth of Vardhamana, known as Mahavira, who emerged in the sixth century BCE. According to Jain tradition, Mahavira was preceded by 23 other spiritual guides or tirthankaras, who were revered for their teachings.

Central to Jain philosophy is the concept that all life forms, including stones, rocks, and water, possess consciousness. Non-violence, or ahimsa, towards all living beings, particularly humans, animals, plants, and insects, is a core principle of Jainism, which has also left a significant influence on Indian thought as a whole. Karma, the cycle of birth and rebirth, is believed to be influenced by one’s actions, and liberation from this cycle requires asceticism and penance. Monastic life is deemed essential for achieving salvation, and Jain monks and nuns adhere to five vows: refraining from harming living beings, stealing, lying, practicing celibacy, and renouncing possessions.

The teachings of Mahavira, like those of Buddha, were recorded by his followers, often in narrative form to resonate with the general populace. An example from the Uttaradhyayana Sutta recounts how Queen Kamalavati urges her husband to renounce worldly attachments and embrace a life of renunciation and penance.

Jainism gradually spread across various regions of India, similar to Buddhism, with Jain scholars producing a vast array of literature in languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Tamil. Early stone sculptures associated with Jainism, depicting the tirthankaras, have been discovered at numerous sites across the subcontinent.

The Buddha and the Quest for Englightenment

One of the prominent teachers during this period was the Buddha. His teachings had a profound impact, spreading across the Indian subcontinent and beyond, reaching regions like Central Asia, China, Korea, Japan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and Indonesia.

Our understanding of the Buddha’s teachings is derived from meticulously editing, translating, and analyzing Buddhist texts, as well as from attempts by historians to reconstruct details of his life from hagiographies. These hagiographies, written down at least a century after the Buddha’s time, aimed to preserve the memories of the revered teacher.

According to these traditions, Siddhartha Gautama, named at birth, was born into the Sakya clan as the son of a chief. Raised in the palace, he led a sheltered life until he ventured outside and encountered the realities of human suffering – witnessing old age, sickness, and death. Struck by these sights, Siddhartha resolved to seek a solution to human suffering. Renouncing his princely life, he embarked on a spiritual quest, experimenting with various ascetic practices before ultimately attaining enlightenment through meditation. Henceforth, he became known as the Buddha or the Enlightened One, dedicating the rest of his life to teaching the dhamma, the path of righteous living.

The Teachings of the Buddha

The teachings of the Buddha have been pieced together from stories found primarily in the Sutta Pitaka. While some narratives portray his miraculous abilities, others highlight his preference for persuading people through reason rather than relying on supernatural displays of power. For example, when consoling a grieving woman whose child had passed away, the Buddha gently guided her to understand the inevitability of death instead of resurrecting her son. These stories were conveyed in everyday language to ensure easy comprehension.

According to Buddhist philosophy, the world is characterized by impermanence (anicca) and lack of inherent soul (anatta), with suffering (dukkha) being an inherent aspect of human existence. The path to transcend these worldly challenges lies in moderation between extreme asceticism and indulgence. In early Buddhism, the existence of gods held little relevance.

An excerpt from the Sutta Pitaka illustrates the Buddha’s guidance to a wealthy householder named Sigala on how to treat his servants, employees, and others with kindness and care. Additionally, the Buddha advised kings and householders to cultivate ethical conduct and compassion, highlighting the importance of individual effort in transforming social relations. He emphasized individual responsibility and righteous action as the means to break free from the cycle of rebirth and achieve self-realization and nibbana, the extinguishing of ego and desire. According to Buddhist tradition, his parting words to his disciples were to be self-reliant in their pursuit of liberation.

Followers of the Buddha

The Buddha established a community of monks, known as the sangha, who became teachers of dhamma, or righteous living. These monks lived a simple life, possessing only the basic necessities and relying on alms for sustenance. Initially, only men were admitted into the sangha, but later, under the persuasion of Ananda, women were also allowed entry. Mahapajapati Gotami, the Buddha’s foster mother, was the first woman to be ordained as a bhikkhuni. Many women who joined the sangha became respected teachers of dhamma, known as theris.

The followers of the Buddha came from diverse social backgrounds, including kings, wealthy individuals, and common people such as workers, slaves, and craftspeople. Within the sangha, all were considered equal, shedding their previous social identities upon becoming bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. Decision-making within the sangha was based on the traditions of ganas and sanghas, where consensus was sought through discussions, and if necessary, decisions were made by voting.

The Therigatha, a unique Buddhist text, consists of verses composed by bhikkhunis, offering insights into women’s social and spiritual experiences. For example, Punna, a slave woman, engaged in a conversation with a Brahmana about the significance of water rituals. This composition reflects teachings of the Buddha, such as the emphasis on reason and the impermanence of worldly rituals.

The Vinaya Pitaka lays down rules for monks and nuns, emphasizing ethical conduct and moderation in daily life. Buddhism gained rapid popularity during and after the Buddha’s lifetime due to its appeal to those dissatisfied with existing religious practices and navigating societal changes. Its focus on conduct, values, and compassion attracted followers from various backgrounds.

Stupas

Buddhist ideas and practices evolved through interactions with various traditions, resulting in the identification of sacred places. Since ancient times, certain locations, often with unique natural features or significant events, were considered sacred and adorned with small shrines known as chaityas. Buddhist literature mentions several such chaityas, including sites associated with key events in the Buddha’s life, such as his birth (Lumbini), enlightenment (Bodh Gaya), first sermon (Sarnath), and passing away (Kusinagara). These places gradually gained sacred status, with Asoka commemorating his visit to Lumbini by erecting a pillar.

Stupas, mounds containing relics of the Buddha or objects associated with him, were built at various sacred sites. While the tradition of erecting stupas may have predated Buddhism, they became closely associated with it. Asoka is said to have distributed portions of the Buddha’s relics and ordered the construction of stupas over them. Inscriptions on stupas record donations from kings, guilds, and individuals, including bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. The structure of stupas evolved from simple mounds to more elaborate forms, with a harmika representing the abode of gods and a mast topped with an umbrella. Stupas were typically adorned with stone railings and gateways, with worshippers circumambulating them in a clockwise direction.

Early stupas, like those at Sanchi and Bharhut, were plain except for richly carved gateways and stone railings resembling bamboo or wooden fences. Later stupas, such as those at Amaravati and Shahji-ki-Dheri, featured elaborate carvings and sculptures on the mound itself, depicting various scenes from Buddhist mythology.

“Discovering” Stupas The Fate of Amarvati and Sanchi

The history of each stupa includes stories of their construction as well as discoveries surrounding them. In 1796, a local raja aiming to build a temple stumbled upon the ruins of the stupa at Amaravati. Believing there might be treasure buried within, he began to dismantle the structure for its stone. Years later, British official Colin Mackenzie visited the site and documented several sculptures, but his reports remained unpublished. Walter Elliot, the commissioner of Guntur, later visited Amaravati in 1854 and collected numerous sculpture panels, known as the Elliot marbles, which he transported to Madras. Despite the significance of Amaravati’s stupas, sculptures from the site were gradually dispersed to various locations, including Calcutta, Madras, and London, often ending up in the gardens of British administrators.

H.H. Cole, an archaeologist, criticized this practice, advocating for the preservation of original works at their discovery sites while displaying plaster-cast facsimiles in museums. However, his plea was not heeded for Amaravati, though it was adopted for Sanchi. Sanchi’s preservation can be attributed to several factors, including the intact state of its gateways when discovered in 1818, efforts to relocate them to Paris or London notwithstanding. Ultimately, Sanchi remained largely untouched, while Amaravati’s mahachaitya is now reduced to a small mound devoid of its former grandeur.

Sculpture

The removal of sculptures from stupas and their transportation to Europe occurred because observers found them beautiful and valuable, desiring to possess them. One such sculpture depicts what appears to be a rural scene but is identified as a scene from the Vessantara Jataka, a story about a generous prince who relinquished everything and lived in the forest with his family. Sculptures often require interpretation based on textual evidence, as they frequently convey symbolic meanings rather than literal depictions.

Art historians familiarized themselves with hagiographies of the Buddha to understand Buddhist sculpture. Many early sculptures symbolically represented aspects of the Buddha’s life, such as his meditation under a tree or the delivery of his first sermon, through symbols like empty seats, stupas, or wheels. Such symbols require contextual understanding to decipher their meaning accurately.

Some sculptures at sites like Sanchi may not directly relate to Buddhist themes but reflect broader cultural beliefs and practices. For example, depictions of women swinging from gateways may represent shalabhanjika, women believed to induce trees to flower and bear fruit, reflecting pre-Buddhist or non-Buddhist traditions integrated into Buddhist art. Additionally, animal depictions, like elephants, horses, and monkeys, symbolized attributes like strength and wisdom, enriching the visual narrative with symbolism drawn from various traditions.

New Religious Traditions

During the first century CE, Buddhism underwent changes in its doctrines and practices. While early Buddhism emphasized individual effort in attaining nibbana, the concept of a savior gradually emerged, suggesting that salvation could be ensured by a divine figure. Alongside this, the idea of the Bodhisattva developed, representing compassionate beings accumulating merit to aid others rather than seeking personal enlightenment. Worship of Buddha and Bodhisattva images became integral to this new tradition, termed Mahayana or the “great vehicle,” contrasting with the older tradition referred to as Hinayana or the “lesser vehicle.”

Similarly, concepts akin to a savior emerged in Hindu traditions such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism, where devotion and worship of chosen deities intensified. Vaishnavism, for instance, centered around the worship of Vishnu and his avatars, believed to incarnate to save the world from chaos and evil. This emphasis on devotion and salvation through divine intervention paralleled developments in Mahayana Buddhism. Additionally, sculptural representations of deities played a crucial role in conveying complex theological ideas, often drawing from Puranic narratives compiled by Brahmanas.

As religious practices evolved, so did architectural forms. Temples began to emerge alongside stupas, providing physical spaces for deity worship. Early temples consisted of simple square rooms housing divine images, gradually evolving into more elaborate structures with towering shikharas and intricate sculptures adorning their walls. Some early temples were even carved out of large rocks, resembling artificial caves. This architectural tradition reached its zenith with the construction of the Kailashnatha temple in the eighth century, showcasing the remarkable craftsmanship and dedication of artisans of that era.

Can We “See” Everything?

Over time, much of the rich visual heritage of the past has been lost or destroyed. However, what remains provides a glimpse into the creative vision of the artists, sculptors, masons, and architects who crafted these remarkable works. Yet, understanding their intended meanings poses a challenge. Can we truly grasp what these images meant to people who lived and venerated them around 2,000 years ago?

Nineteenth-century European scholars encountering Indian sculptures often found them perplexing, with their multiple arms, heads, and combinations of human and animal forms. Initially, they attempted to interpret these unfamiliar images by comparing them to familiar Greek sculptures, often considering Indian art inferior. However, they were intrigued by Buddha and Bodhisattva images in northwest cities like Taxila and Peshawar, which bore resemblance to Greek statues and were deemed the finest examples of early Indian art. This approach of using familiar references to understand the unfamiliar is a common human strategy.

Another challenge arises when textual descriptions diverge from visual representations. For example, a prominent sculpture in Mahabalipuram depicts a vivid narrative, but scholars differ in identifying its story. Some suggest it portrays the descent of the river Ganga from heaven, while others propose it illustrates Arjuna’s penance from the Mahabharata. This discrepancy highlights the complexity of interpreting ancient art solely through textual traditions.

Chapter 4 Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Cultural Developments- FAQs

What is the name of Chapter 4 of Class 12 history?

The name for Class 12 History Chapter 4 is Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Cultural Developments.

What is world according to Buddhist philosophy class 12?

According to Buddhist philosophy, the world is transient (anicca) and constantly changing; it is also soulless (anatta) as there is nothing permanent or eternal in it. Within this transient world, sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human existence.

What is the structure of stupa Class 12?

The stupa evolved from a basic semi-circular earthen mound known as anda. Inside the stupa, there are small chambers where the relics of Buddha are placed. It developed into a more sophisticated construction that included both round and square forms.

What is the significance of depiction of animals at Sanchi Stupa?

Animals were used as symbols of human attributes, e.g. elephants were depicted to signify strength and wisdom. There is a motif in Sanchi stupa of Gajalakshmi surrounded by lotuses and elephants, which seems to be sprinkling water on her as if performing an Abhisheka or consecration.

Were the ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers different?

The ideas of the Upanishad thinkers are not much different from that of the fatalists and materialists.