Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class Early Societies| Class 12 History Notes

Class 12 History Notes Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class Early Societies: CBSE Class 12 History Notes are important for students studying Social Science, as History is a crucial sub-subject that requires properly written answers. Scoring well in History is just as important as other subjects.

By going through these notes, students can strengthen their understanding of the chapter’s concepts and learn more about families, caste systems, and how people lived long ago.

Our History Notes Class 12 serves as a valuable resource to enhance your problem-solving skills and prepare for your Social Science Class 12 exams. By utilizing our comprehensive notes, you can develop a strong foundation in History and improve your problem-solving skills.

Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class Early Societies| Class 12 History Notes

Early Historic Period

Historians study old writings to learn about how people lived in the past. Some of these writings talk about how people were expected to behave in society. One famous text for this is the Mahabharata. It is a really long story about two families who fought against each other. This text was written over a thousand years ago and gives us lots of information about how people thought and behaved back then.

The Critical Edition of Mahabharata

One of the biggest scholarly projects began in 1919 when a team led by V.S. Sukthankar, an Indian Sanskritist, started working on creating a critical edition of the Mahabharata. The team’s first task was to gather Sanskrit manuscripts of the text from various parts of the country, written in different languages. They then compared the verses from each manuscript and selected the ones that were common to most versions.

These selected verses were published in several volumes, which altogether amounted to over 13,000 pages. It took the team 47 years to finish this project. They found that despite regional differences, there were many common elements in the Sanskrit versions found across the subcontinent. However, there were also significant regional variations in how the text had been passed down over time. These variations were documented in footnotes and appendices.

This project showed how social histories were shaped by interactions between dominant traditions and local customs. It’s important to note that while Brahmanical texts were considered authoritative, they were also questioned and sometimes rejected. This understanding helps historians reconstruct social histories accurately.

Kinship and Marriage Many Ryles and Varied Practices

Kinship

• Families form a part of a larger network of relatives known as kinfolk. Not all families are the same; they vary in size, relationships, and shared activities.
• Members of the same family share resources, work, and participate in rituals together.
• Family ties are based on blood relations, and some societies consider cousins as blood relatives while others do not.
• Historians find it easier to gather information about elite families compared to ordinary ones.

Rules about Patriliny

• The Mahabharata follows a patrilineal narrative, where descent is traced from father to son, grandson, and so on.
• These relatives belonged to a single ruling family, the Kurus, who governed one of the janapadas.
• When a father dies, his sons may inherit his resources or throne. This inheritance system is common among ruling dynasties, with variations.
• While extraordinary figures like Prabhavati Gupta wielded power, ordinary households were mainly concerned with patriliny.

Rules of Marriage

• Two systems of marriage existed: Endogamy and Exogamy.
• Endogamy involves marriage within the kin group, while exogamy involves marriage outside the kin group.
• Exogamous marriages among high-status families were carefully regulated to ensure they occurred at the right time and with the right person.
• Kanyadana, the gift of a daughter in marriage, was considered an important religious duty for fathers.

Types of Marriages

There are three types of marriages:

1. Monogamy: One man having one wife.
2. Polygamy: One man having several wives.
3. Polyandry: One woman having several husbands.

Norms of marriage were compiled in Sanskrit texts like Dharmasutras and Manusmiriti, which recognized eight forms of marriage. The first four were considered good and arranged by parents, while the remaining four were condemned.

The Gotra Rules

Brahmans laid down Gotra rules to classify people based on their lineage.

Each Gotra was named after a Vedic seer, and people belonging to the same Gotra were considered descendants.

Women were expected to adopt their husband’s Gotra after marriage.

Marriage between members of the same Gotra was prohibited.

Some Satavahana rulers practiced polygyny, and many queens retained their father’s Gotra even after marriage, challenging the exogamy ideal recommended in Brahmanical texts. This exemplified the practice of endogamy, prevalent among several communities in South India.

Were mothers important?

The Satavahana rulers were identified by their Matronymics, meaning their names were derived from their mothers.

However, the succession to the throne was generally patrilineal, meaning it followed the line of descent from father to son.

Social Differences: Within & beyond the framework of caste

The “right” Occupation

The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras outlined the ideal occupations for each of the four varnas.

Brahmans were expected to study Vedas, perform sacrifices, and oversee sacrificial rituals.

Kshatriyas were tasked with duties like warfare, protecting people, administering justice, studying the Vedas, conducting sacrifices, and giving gifts.

Vaishyas were to engage in agricultural activities, animal husbandry, and trade.

Shudras were assigned a singular occupation.

The Brahmanas used various strategies to enforce these occupational norms

Firstly, they asserted that the varna order was divinely ordained.

Secondly, they advised kings to ensure compliance with these norms within their realms.

Thirdly, they tried to convince people that their social status was determined by birth.

These norms were further reinforced through stories found in texts like the Mahabharata.

Non-Kshatriya Kings

According to the shastras, only Kshatriyas were eligible to be kings. However, historical evidence reveals instances where ruling lineages had different origins. For instance:

The Mauryas, who ruled over a vast empire, were of low social origin as described in Brahmanical texts.

The immediate successors of the Mauryas, such as the Sungas and Kanvas, were Brahmanas.

Political power was often accessible to individuals who could garner support and resources, regardless of their birth status as Kshatriyas.

Rulers like the Shakas, who originated from Central Asia, were viewed as outsiders or “Mlechchhas” by Brahmanical society.

Interestingly, rulers like Rudradaman, a prominent Shaka ruler, were well-versed in Sanskritic traditions.

Furthermore, rulers of the Satavahana dynasty, like Gotami-puta Shri-Satakani, claimed unique Brahmanical identities despite their non-Kshatriya backgrounds.

Jatis and Social Mobility

In Brahmanical theory, jati, similar to varna, was determined by birth. Unlike varna, the number of jatis was not fixed.

Brahmanical authorities encountered new groups like the nishadas and occupational categories like goldsmiths, which did not neatly fit into the fourfold varna system. These groups were classified into jatis.

Jatis with common occupations or professions often formed guilds or shrines. For example, a guild of silk weavers migrated from Gujarat to Madhya Pradesh and collectively invested their wealth in constructing a temple.

While guild membership was based on shared craft specialization, some members pursued alternative occupations.

Beyond Birth Resources and Status

Integration of Varna practices

In the Indian subcontinent, the social practices of tribal communities often diverged from Brahmanical norms. These communities, often residing in forests, were sometimes portrayed as unconventional or even uncivilized by Brahmanical standards.

Those who did not fit neatly into the settled agricultural society or did not speak Sanskrit were labeled as Mlechchhas and looked down upon.

However, there were instances of exchange of ideas and beliefs between the higher varna communities and forest dwellers. This interaction is evident in stories found in texts like the Mahabharata.

For example, the story of Eklavya, a forest-dwelling boy who sought to learn archery from Dronacharya, demonstrates this interaction. Similarly, the marriage of Bhima, one of the Pandavas, to Hidimba, a rakshasi by birth, illustrates relationships between higher varna individuals and forest-dwelling communities.

Subordination and Conflict

While Brahmanas considered certain groups outside the varna system, they also enforced a sharper social divide by classifying specific social categories as “untouchable.” Members of these groups, such as chandalas, were placed at the lowest rung of the social hierarchy.

Activities performed by untouchables, such as handling corpses and dead animals, were deemed particularly polluting by Brahmanical standards.

The Manusmriti prescribed specific duties for chandalas, including living outside the village, using discarded utensils, wearing clothes of the dead, adorning themselves with iron ornaments, refraining from walking in villages at night, and disposing of bodies without relatives as well as serving as executioners.

Accounts by Chinese Buddhist monks Fa Xian and Xuan Chang provide further insights into the social status and treatment of untouchables in Indian society. Fa Xian noted that untouchables were signaled by clappers in the streets to avoid contact, while Xuan Chang observed that executioners and scavengers were relegated to living outside the city limits.

Explaining Social Differences: A Social Contract

The Buddhists also proposed an alternative view of social inequalities and the institutions needed to manage social conflicts. According to a myth in the Sutta Pitaka, initially, human beings and the natural world existed in a harmonious state. They only took from nature what they needed for sustenance.

However, over time, humans became increasingly selfish, aggressive, and deceitful. In response, they contemplated appointing a leader who would uphold justice, censure wrongdoing, and maintain order. This leader, known as mahasammata or the great elect, would receive a share of the community’s resources as compensation for his services.

This narrative suggests that kingship was established through human choice, with taxes serving as payment for the king’s duties. Moreover, it acknowledges human agency in shaping economic and social systems. Importantly, it implies that if humans created these systems, they also have the power to change them in the future.

Handling Texts Historians and the Mahabharata

Language

The Mahabharata is written in Sanskrit, although other languages like Pali and Prakrit also existed during that time.

The Sanskrit used in the Mahabharata is simpler compared to that of the Vedas or inscriptions.

Content

Historians divide the content of the Mahabharata into two main categories: Narrative and Didactic.

The narrative sections contain stories, while the didactic sections prescribe social norms. However, both sections often convey social messages.

Authors

The original story of the Mahabharata was likely composed by charioteer-bards known as sutas, who accompanied Kshatriya warriors to battles and composed poems celebrating their victories.

Initially, the story circulated orally, but from the fifth century BCE, Brahmanas began to write it down. This coincided with the emergence of kingdoms like the Kurus and Panchalas.

Between approximately 200 BCE and 200 CE, another phase of composition occurred. This period saw the growing importance of Vishnu worship, with Krishna being identified as Vishnu.

Draupadi’s Marriage with the Pandavas

Some present-day historians suggest that polyandry was practiced among ruling elites in ancient India at some point.

Polyandry, however, gradually fell out of favor among the Brahmanas, who reworked and developed the texts over centuries. It was more prevalent in the Himalayan region.

It is speculated that polyandry may have been a response to a shortage of women during times of warfare, viewed as a crisis situation.

However, polyandry was not the only or most prevalent form of marriage, as suggested by early sources.

Mahabharata as a Dynamic Text

The Mahabharata continued to evolve beyond its original Sanskrit version. Over centuries, versions of the epic were written in various languages through interactions between different communities and authors.

Many stories originating from specific regions or circulating among certain groups were incorporated into the epic.

The central story of the Mahabharata was retold in different ways, and its episodes were depicted in sculptures, paintings, and various performing arts such as plays and dances.

FAQs on Class 12 History Notes Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class Early Societies

What is the significance of studying Kinship, Caste, and Class in early societies?

Understanding Kinship, Caste, and Class in early societies provides insights into the social structures, hierarchies, and relationships that shaped ancient civilizations. It helps us comprehend the organization of communities, distribution of power, and the evolution of societal norms.

What are some key concepts related to Kinship in early societies?

Key concepts related to Kinship include familial networks, inheritance systems, marriage practices, and kinship terminology. These concepts shed light on how relationships were defined, maintained, and regulated within ancient communities.

How did Caste systems emerge in early societies?

Caste systems emerged as hierarchical social structures, often based on occupation, birth, and ritual purity. They divided society into distinct groups with prescribed roles, privileges, and restrictions. The caste system influenced various aspects of life, including marriage, occupation, and social interactions.

What role did Class play in early societies?

Class divisions in early societies were based on economic factors such as wealth, landownership, and access to resources. Class determined one’s socio-economic status and opportunities for advancement. It influenced power dynamics, social mobility, and the distribution of resources within communities.

How did Kinship, Caste, and Class interact in early societies?

Kinship, Caste, and Class intersected to shape social structures and relationships in early societies. Kinship ties often reinforced caste and class distinctions, determining one’s status, obligations, and opportunities within the community. These interactions influenced marriage practices, inheritance patterns, and social mobility.