Literature of Jain Religion

Jainism, an ancient Indian religion, boasts a rich literary tradition that spans languages and centuries. The sacred texts and other literary works of Jainism serve as a guiding light for its followers, offering profound insights into spiritual philosophy and ethical conduct.

Literature of Jain Religion

Category	Text	Description/Significance
Early Jain Scriptures	Agamas	Ancient Jain texts containing the teachings of Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara. They form the foundational scripture of Jainism, divided mainly into Śvētāmbara and Digambara traditions.
	Sutrakritanga	One of the earliest Agamas, detailing the life of Mahavira and his teachings.
Philosophical Texts	Tattvartha Sutra	A key philosophical text accepted by all Jain sects, outlining the Jain doctrine, including the nature of reality, the soul, and the path to liberation.
	Samayasara	Authored by Acharya Kundakunda, focuses on the intrinsic nature of the soul and the importance of self-realization in Jain philosophy.
Commentaries	Acharya Haribhadra’s Commentaries	Important commentaries on Jain Agamas and philosophical texts, bridging ancient teachings with practical applications for modern adherents.
	Niyamasara	Renowned for its comprehensive coverage of Jain ethics, karma theory, and the path to liberation, written by Acharya Kundakunda.
Ethics and Conduct	Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra	Describes the conduct of a Śrāvaka (lay follower), offering guidance on living a life according to Jain ethical standards.
	Purushartha Siddhyupaya	A manual for spiritual practice, focusing on achieving liberation through right knowledge, faith, and conduct, attributed to Amritchandra Acharya.
History and Biography	Kalpa Sūtra	Narrates the biographies of Tirthankaras, especially Mahavira, and outlines the rules for the monastic community. It’s especially revered during the Paryushana festival by Śvētāmbara Jains.
Epics and Poetry	Mahapurana	A major Jain epic by Acharya Jinasena, depicting the lives of sixty-three illustrious persons in Jain history, highlighting the principles of Jainism through their stories.

Early Developments

Jain literature traces its roots to the teachings of Lord Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara, around the 6th century BCE. The earliest Jain texts were orally transmitted and later compiled into written scriptures known as Agamas, forming the foundation of Jain canonical literature.

Originally, the sacred teachings in Jainism were passed down orally, forming a tradition where historical leaders like Mahavira played a crucial role. These teachings were initially compiled into twelve sections called Angas, believed to be organized by Gautama and other principal students of Mahavira, known as Gandhara. The twelfth section included fourteen Purvas, considered as the complete and precise explanation of various aspects of Jain learning, as per legend.

Acharya Bhadrabahu, who lived between 367 – 298 BCE, was the final knower of the full Jain agamas. During the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, he served as the head of the Jain community. The agamas were collected based on the collective memory of ascetics in the first council of Pataliputra, led by Sthulibhadra around 463–367 BCE, following the Svetambara tradition. The council compiled eleven Angas, and the remnants of fourteen purvas were recorded in a 12th Anga.

However, the Digambara order held a different belief, rejecting these scriptures. They considered Acharya Bhutabali from the 1st Century CE as the last ascetic with partial knowledge of the ancient canon. According to the Digambaras, the Purvas and the original Agamas of Gautama were lost during the crises and famine of the Mauryan period.

List of 12 Angas of Jainism

No.

Anga	Description/Significance
1	Acharanga Sutra	Discusses the conduct and behavior of Jain monks, emphasizing non-violence and the hardships monks endure.
2	Sutrakritanga	Expands on the teachings of Mahavira in a dialog format, discussing doctrine and philosophy.
3	Sthananga Sutra	Deals with classification of various subjects, including substances, beings, times, and places.
4	Samavayanga Sutra	Focuses on the theory of atoms and the structure of the universe, detailing matter and its classification.
5	Vyakhya Prajnapti	Also known as Bhagavati Sutra, it is a major doctrinal text that discusses philosophy, ontology, and Jain cosmology through dialogue.
6	Jnatadharmakatha	Contains stories and anecdotes that illustrate the teachings of Jainism, focusing on karma and ethical behavior.
7	Upasakadhyayana	Describes the duties and conduct of Jain lay followers (Upasakas), including stories that highlight moral and spiritual teachings.
8	Antakrddasao	Contains stories of men and women who attain liberation, focusing on the final moments of their lives and their path to liberation.
9	Anuttaraupapatikadasao	Discusses the stories of souls who are reborn in the highest heavens and their path to liberation.
10	Prasnavyakarana	Deals with philosophical and doctrinal questions and answers, covering a wide range of topics including ethics and metaphysics.
11	Vipakasruta	Focuses on the concept of karma, detailing the types of karma, their effects, and the process of rebirth according to one’s actions.
12	Drstivada	Concerned with the Jain theory of perception and knowledge. However, the original text is lost, and what remains is known through references in other texts.

Jain Literature – Agamas

These are sacred writings believed to contain the teachings of the Jain tirthankaras. The Gandharas, who were immediate pupils of Mahavira, are said to have compiled these texts. Svetambaras consider these writings extremely important. A council of Svetambara sect monks at Vallabhi in Gujarat is said to have re-compiled the current Angas in the mid-5th century AD. However, the Digambara sect believes that the original teachings were lost long ago and does not consider the Agamas written in Vallabhi as authoritative.

The Agamas consist of 46 writings, including Twelve Angas, twelve Upangas, ten Prakirnakas, four Mulasutras, six Chedasutras, and two Chulika Sutras. These texts were written in Ardha-Magadhi, a Prakrit language. The Angas impart teachings emphasizing respect for all forms of life, strict vegetarianism, asceticism, compassion, and nonviolence. There are a total of 12 Angas, each with specific themes.

Some notable Agamas include the Acharanga Sutra, the oldest agama, which addresses the conduct and behavior of monastic life and Lord Mahavira’s penance. The Sutrakritanga delves into the code of conduct for Jain monks and metaphysics. The Sthananga Sutra, Samavayanga Sutra, and Vyakhya Prajnapti or Bhagavati Sūtra cover discussions on the essence of Jainism, astronomy, mathematics, and more.

The Digambaras accord canonical status to the Karmaprabhrita (discussion on Karma) or Shatkhandagama and the Kashayaprabhrita. The Acharanga Sutra is the first of the twelve Anga Agamas and was the initial scripture studied by Jain monks. It addresses aspects of monastic life and Lord Mahavira’s penance. Linguistically, it is considered the oldest agama, written in Ardha Magadhi Prakrit.

Bhadrabahu, a tutor of Chandragupta Maurya, wrote the Kalpa Sutra. This scripture includes biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras, particularly Parshvanath and Mahavira, along with Mahavira’s Nirvana. Given Bhadrabahu’s association with Chandragupta Maurya, it is presumed to have been written during the Mauryan period

Jain Literature – Non‑agama

Non-agam literature consists of commentaries and explanations of Agam literature, along with separate works created by ascetics and intellectuals. These writings are found in various languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit, Apabhramsa, Old Marathi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannad, Tamil, German, and English.

Bhadrabahu is recognized for writing three sacred books in Jainism and Niryuktis, which are brief commentaries on the original 12 sacred books. There are conflicting accounts about Bhadrabahu’s whereabouts during a famine – some suggest he escaped to Nepal, while others believe he stayed in Mysore.

The Bhadrabahu Samhita was employed to gain a better understanding of Jaina jurisprudence. The study’s aim is to shed light on women’s rights in the ancient Jain era, determining whether they have been accurately represented in public perception or if arbitrary conclusions and uninformed misinterpretations have created a distorted view.

Other Literary works

Acharya Kundkund explains Jain philosophy in his works Samayasara and Niyamasara. Samanta Bhadra, in the second century AD, composed Ratna Karanda Sravakachara (Life of a Jaina Householder) and Aptamimansa.

Ilango Adigal’s Silappadikaram, written in the second century AD, is a moralistic discourse and considered one of the best epics in Tamil literature. It narrates the story of Kannagi seeking revenge on the Pandyan Dynasty after a miscarriage of justice at the Pandyan court.

Tirutakkatevar’s Civaka Cintamani is another Tamil epic, while the ancient Tamil text Nalatiyar was written by Jain monks. Umasvati’s Tattvartha-sutra, from the first and second centuries AD, is a significant Sanskrit work covering logic, epistemology, ethics, and astronomy.

Jinasena, a Digambara monk from the eighth and ninth centuries, wrote the Maha Purana and the Harivamsa Purana. He was a pupil of another renowned Jain monk, Virasena.

In the sixth century AD, Jain author Haribhadra Suri wrote in Sanskrit. Additionally, Hemachandra Suri, a famous scholar from the 12th century, wrote grammars in both Sanskrit and Prakrit.

Significance of Jain religion

Jain literature is believed to have played a role in developing various Indian languages. Jaina literary works can be found in Sanskrit, Marathi, Gujarati, Kannada, Tamil, Malayalam, Rajasthani, Marwari, and Hindi. Kannada literature, for example, emerged from Jaina writings.

Subhas Chandra wrote the Pandava Purana, while Jinasena authored the Harivamsapurana. Ardhakathanaka by Banarsidas is considered the first autobiography in Braj Bhasha, seen as a precursor to Hindi. Apabhramsa, an ancient language, was used for writing several Jaina literary works, including Kahas and grammar. It is considered the ancestor of various Gangetic plains Indian languages.

Shauraseni, containing early Jaina literature, contributed to shaping languages like Gujarati and Marwari. From the 9th to the 12th centuries, Jain monks extensively wrote in Kannada.

Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna, well-known Jain authors, are considered the three jewels of Kannada literature. However, after the 12th and 13th centuries, as Hinduism resurged and Lingayats rose in Karnataka, Jainism’s popularity declined, leading to a decrease in literary production.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Jain literature stands as a testament to the profound spiritual heritage of Jainism. From the early developments rooted in the teachings of Lord Mahavira to the diverse array of Agamas and non-Agama works, Jain literature encapsulates the essence of this ancient faith. Its influence extends beyond the Jain community, leaving an indelible mark on the broader cultural and philosophical landscape of India.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

What are Jain Agamas?

Jain Agamas are the primary canonical scriptures of Jainism, believed to have been directly spoken by Lord Mahavira. They form the foundational texts for understanding Jain philosophy and practice.

How is Jain literature classified?

Jain literature is classified into Agama and non-Agama categories. Agamas include canonical scriptures like Angas and Upangas, while non-Agama works encompass narrative compositions, commentaries, and poetic expressions.

What is the significance of Prabandhas in Jain literature?

Prabandhas are narrative compositions that vividly depict the lives of Tirthankaras. The “Kalpasutra” is a notable Prabandha, offering insights into the life of Lord Mahavira.

How has Jain literature influenced Indian culture?

Jain literature, with its emphasis on non-violence and ethical principles, has influenced not only Jain followers but also contributed to broader Indian cultural and intellectual traditions.

Who are some prominent Jain poets mentioned in the article?

Shubhachandra and Jinaprabha Suri are mentioned as revered Jain poets who have contributed significantly to Jain literature, crafting verses and poems that convey spiritual teachings and philosophical insights.