Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 4 India’s External Relations: India’s external relations are a complex and ever-evolving topic. In this chapter, we will explore the history, principles, and challenges of India’s foreign policy. We will also examine India’s relationship with its key partners, including the United States, China, and Russia. India’s foreign policy is guided by the principles of non-alignment, peaceful coexistence, and respect for international law. These principles were laid down by Jawaharlal Nehru, India’s first Prime Minister, and have remained the cornerstone of India’s foreign policy ever since.
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International Context
India’s foreign policy was shaped by the aftermath of the war, the establishment of an international body, the emergence of new countries, and the need for welfare and democracy. As an independent nation-state, India aimed to respect the sovereignty of other nations and achieve security through peacekeeping. This approach is reflected in the Directive Principles of State Policy. The domestic and international environment influences a nation’s foreign policy, with developing countries focusing on peace and development in their neighborhoods. The division of countries into two camps after World War II, influenced by the United States and its Western allies and the Soviet Union, was a significant factor in the development of India’s foreign policy.
The Policy of Non-Alignment
The Indian national movement was part of a global struggle against colonialism and imperialism, influencing the liberation movements of Asian and African countries. India’s independence coincided with the Cold War era, marked by political, economic, and military confrontations between the US and USSR, the establishment of the UN, nuclear weapons, the emergence of Communist China, and decolonization. India’s foreign policy reflected the noble ideals that inspired its struggle for freedom.
Nehru’s Role
Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, played a significant role in shaping the nation’s foreign policy from 1946 to 1964. His objectives were to preserve sovereignty, protect territorial integrity, and promote economic development. He aimed for nonalignment, despite opposition from pro-democracy parties like Dr. Ambedkar and opposition from political parties like Bharatiya Jan Sangh and Swatantra Party.
Distance From Two Camps
India’s foreign policy aimed for a peaceful world by advocating non-alignment, reducing Cold War tensions, and contributing human resources to UN peacekeeping operations. Despite not joining NATO or the Warsaw Pact, India maintained independence on international issues and received aid from both blocs. Pakistan joined US-led military alliances, leading to unease in Indo-US relations during the 1950s. India’s planned economic development strategy, emphasizing import-substitution and developing a resource base, limited export-oriented growth and limited India’s economic interaction with the outside world.
Afro-Asian Unity
Nehru envisioned India’s significant role in world affairs, particularly in Asian affairs. He established contacts with other Asian and African states, advocating for Asian unity and decolonization. India supported Indonesia’s freedom struggle and opposed racism, particularly apartheid in South Africa. The Bandung Conference in 1955 marked India’s engagement with Asian and African nations, leading to the establishment of the National Assembly (NAM) in 1961. Nehru co-founded the NAM.
Peace and Conflict with China
India’s relationship with China began with a friendly stance after the 1949 Chinese revolution. Nehru supported the communist government and helped it in international forums. Despite concerns about potential Chinese aggression, Nehru believed it was unlikely. The 1954 joint enunciation of Panchsheel, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, strengthened the relationship between India and China.
The Chinese Invasion, 1962
The relationship between India and China was strained by two developments: China annexed Tibet in 1950 and a boundary dispute between the two countries. India initially did not oppose this, but as information about the suppression of Tibetan culture emerged, the Indian government grew uneasy. The Dalai Lama sought political asylum in India in 1959. China alleged that India was allowing anti-China activities from within India. A boundary dispute also surfaced, with China claiming two areas within India’s territory. Despite extensive correspondence and discussion, these differences could not be resolved. In 1962, China launched a swift and massive invasion on both disputed regions, causing a sense of national humiliation and strengthening nationalism. The Sino-Indian conflict affected the opposition, leading to irreconcilable differences within the Communist Party of India (CPI). The party split in 1964, and the leaders of the latter faction formed the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI-M). The war with China alerted the Indian leadership to the volatile situation in the Northeast region, which presented the challenge of national integration and political unity.
Tibet
Tibet, a central Asian region, has been a source of tension between India and China since the 1950s. China claimed administrative control over Tibet, but the Tibetan population opposed this. India tried to persuade China to recognize Tibet’s independence claims. In 1954, the Panchsheel agreement allowed India to concede China’s claim over Tibet. The Dalai Lama informed India about the worsening situation in Tibet, but China assured India that Tibet would receive greater autonomy than any other region.
In 1958, an armed uprising against China’s occupation was suppressed by Chinese forces. In 1959, the Dalai Lama sought asylum in India, which was granted. Over the last half-century, many Tibetans have sought refuge in India and other countries, with Dharmashala in Himachal Pradesh being the largest refuge settlement. In the 1950s and 1960s, political leaders and parties in India supported Tibet’s independence. Tibetans dispute China’s claim of autonomy and believe China aims to undermine the traditional religion and culture of Tibet.
Wars and Peace with Pakistan
The Kashmir conflict between India and Pakistan began after Partition over a dispute over Kashmir. A proxy war broke out in 1947, but it did not escalate into a full war. The issue was referred to the UN, and Pakistan became a significant factor in India’s relations with the US and China. Despite the conflict, cooperation between the two governments was maintained, including the restoration of women abducted during Partition. The India-Pakistan Indus Waters Treaty was signed in 1960, which has been effective. In 1965, armed conflict escalated, leading to the signing of the Tashkent Agreement.
Bangladesh War, 1971
In 1970, Pakistan faced its largest internal crisis, with Zulfikar Ali Bhutto’s party winning West Pakistan and the Awami League sweeping through East Pakistan. The Bengali population protested against being treated as second-class citizens by West Pakistani rulers. In 1971, the Pakistani army arrested Sheikh Mujib-ur Rahman, leading to a revolt in East Pakistan. India supported the freedom struggle in Bangladesh, accusing Pakistan of a conspiracy.
Support for Pakistan came from the US and China, leading to a realignment of forces in Asia. India signed a 20-year Treaty of Peace and Friendship with the Soviet Union in 1971 to counter the US-Pakistan-China axis. A full-scale war broke out in December 1971, with Pakistan attacking Punjab and Rajasthan and India retaliating with an attack on the Jammu and Kashmir front. The Indian army made rapid progress in East Pakistan, resulting in a unilateral ceasefire. The signing of the Shimla Agreement in 1972 formalized the return of peace.
India’s Nuclear Policy
India’s first nuclear explosion in May 1974 was a significant development in the country’s industrialization plans, initiated in the late 1940s under the guidance of Homi J. Bhabha. India aimed to generate atomic energy for peaceful purposes, but Nehru opposed nuclear weapons and pleaded for comprehensive nuclear disarmament. The nuclear arsenal continued to grow, and when Communist China conducted nuclear tests in 1964, the five nuclear weapon powers tried to impose the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) on the rest of the world.
India considered the NPT discriminatory and refused to sign it. The period following the nuclear test was a challenging one in domestic politics, as the Arab-Israel War of 1973 led to the Oil Shock, economic turmoil, and high inflation. Indian politics generally agreed on national integration, international boundary protection, and national interest. During the decade of 1962-1971, foreign policy played a limited role in party politics.
Shifting Alliances in World Politics
In 1977, many non-Congress governments came to power, leading to significant changes in world politics. The Janata Party government announced a non-alignment approach, aiming to correct the pro-Soviet tilt in foreign policy. Since then, all governments have focused on restoring relations with China and establishing close ties with the US. India’s foreign policy is closely linked to its stance towards Pakistan and Indo-US relations. Post-1990, the ruling parties have been criticized for their pro-US foreign policy.
Post-1990, Russia lost global preeminence, leading to a more pro-US strategy. Economic interests have also influenced India’s foreign policy choices. Indo-Pakistan relations have seen new developments, with efforts to restore normal relations, encourage cultural exchanges, and encourage economic cooperation. The establishment of a train and bus service between the two countries has been a major achievement. Despite the near-war situation in 1999, efforts at negotiating durable peace continue.
Conclusion – Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 4 India’s External Relations
In conclusion, India’s foreign policy has evolved over time in response to changing global dynamics, leaders’ visions, and geopolitical scenarios. The key challenges for India’s external relations include balancing national interests, promoting peace, and navigating regional conflicts. India’s independence coincided with the outbreak of the Cold War. During this period, the United Nations was established, nuclear weapons were developed, China became communist, and decolonization began. As a result, India’s leaders had to strike a balance between national interests and global realities.
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India’s External Relations- FAQs
What is the focus of Chapter 4 of Class 12 Political Science?
The chapter examines India’s external relations, including its foreign policy objectives, challenges, and strategies.
What are India’s key foreign policy objectives?
India’s objectives include promoting regional stability, economic growth, and strategic autonomy, as well as fostering global partnerships.
How does India engage with its neighbors?
India engages with its neighbors through diplomatic initiatives, economic cooperation, and regional forums like SAARC and BIMSTEC.
What are India’s strategic partnerships with major powers?
India has strategic partnerships with major powers like the United States, Russia, and the European Union, aimed at enhancing security and economic cooperation.
How does India navigate its relations with China?
India’s relations with China are characterized by cooperation in some areas and competition and territorial disputes in others.
What role does India play in regional and global forums?
India actively participates in regional forums like ASEAN and global platforms like the United Nations to promote its interests and contribute to global governance.
How does India balance its interests with non-alignment?
India maintains a policy of non-alignment while pursuing strategic autonomy and engaging with multiple partners to advance its national interests.