Religion of Indus Valley Civilization

The Harappan civilization also referred to as the Indus Valley Civilization, was present in the northwestern areas of South Asia during the Bronze Age. It lasted from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, with its mature form occurring from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. Compared to ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley Civilization was the most widespread, with sites covering a vast area from northeast Afghanistan through much of present-day Pakistan and into western and northwestern India. It thrived in the Indus River basins, which were fed by a system of perennial rivers that mostly received monsoon rains. Unlike other ancient civilizations, the Indus Valley Civilization did not have large temples or religious imagery, and deciphering the scripts did not reveal the names or characteristics of deities.

Types of Seals

In the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, seals were small objects made of various materials such as steatite, copper, terracotta, chert, faience, agate, gold, and ivory. These seals were burned to make them more durable and were used for commercial purposes like sealing jars and creating clay tags for sacks. They were also used in trading activities, as evidenced by the discovery of Harappan seals in Mesopotamia, Central Asia, and along the Arabian Peninsula’s coasts, and Mesopotamian seals in Lothal.

The seals came in various shapes, including triangles, squares, rectangles, and circles, but square-shaped seals were the most common in the Harappan civilization. Many seals had symbols or pictographic scripts on one side, which were typically written from right to left, but some were written in a bidirectional style. Animal impressions were carved on the surfaces of the seals on the other side, featuring animals such as tigers, buffaloes, elephants, rhinoceroses, bison, goats, unicorns, ibexes, humped bulls, and crocodiles.

Interestingly, some Harappan seals were discovered on dead bodies and had threaded holes, suggesting that they were used as amulets or as a necklace. Overall, these seals offer insights into the commercial and trading activities of the Indus Valley Civilization and provide a glimpse into the symbols and animals that were significant to this ancient civilization.

1. Procession Seal 

This is called the “sacrifice” seal that shows a religious ceremony, albeit different people have different ideas about what exactly is happening.  A person with big horns and bangles standing in a pipal tree, which is said to represent a deity, may be seen in the top left corner of the heavily used seal.   In front of the god, another figure—possibly a worshipper or priest—kneeled. There is a human head sitting on a seat next to this image. The upper layer of the image is completed behind this by a big horned animal. Seven individuals, possibly female, are depicted in a line in the lowest layer, each wearing a knee-length garment, bangles, and a plumed hat. Some IVC seals depict groups of seven figures and various trees with religious significance, such as the banyan, pipal, and acacia, which are still significant in later Hinduism. 

2. Pashupati Seal

The Pashupati seal is the most famous seal from the Indus Valley Civilization, made of steatite and featuring a carved human figure, possibly a deity named Pashupati, seated cross-legged. The figure is depicted wearing a three-horned headgear and is surrounded by animals, including an elephant and a tiger on one side, and a rhinoceros and a buffalo on the other, as well as two antelopes below. It measures 3.56 cm by 3.53 cm and has a thickness of 0.76 cm.

The human figure on the seal is seated on a platform with its heels touching and toes pointing downward. Its knees are bent. The double band that wraps around the waist and chest is embellished with what appear to be necklaces, and the arms reach outward and rest lightly on the knees.  The figure sports a tall, ornate headpiece with two enormous, striated horns on either side and a center fan-shaped structure.

Four wild animals surround the human figure, including an elephant, a tiger, a water buffalo, and an Indian rhinoceros on either side. Underneath the platform, two deer or ibexes stand with their curving horns almost touching in the middle. Seven Indus script symbols may be seen at the top of the seal, with the final one seeming somewhat dislocated due to a lack of horizontal space.

The seal, which is believed to date from around 2350-2000 BCE, has been subject to different interpretations by scholars. While some, like Marshall, identified the central figure as a proto-Shiva, others, like Srinivasan and Hiltebeitel, have proposed the figure to be a Buffalo-man, with headdresses that impart powers of fertility.  Some yoga researchers have used the seal to show that the Indus Valley Civilization was where yoga first emerged, but others, like Samuel and Jain, reject this claim as a mere anachronism.  

3. Swastika Seals 

The Swastika signs found in the Indus Valley Civilization were primarily engraved in button and square seals. Scholars classify them as “geometric motifs” that became predominant towards the end of the Mature Harappan Phase. The sizing of these seals may have reflected socio-economic, political, and religious hierarchy. The Swastika Seals were discovered to have had “mercantile purposes” along some trade routes. They may have served as proto-bureaucratic certifications or to identify the owners of a business participating in a transaction.  Even though it is still unclear what the Swastika Seals were used for in the Indus Valley Civilization, it is unlikely that they had any religious or ritualistic significance.  Many cultures around the world have the Swastika sign, some of which are contemporary with the IVC or even predate it. It’s possible that the Indo-Aryan migrations are where the Hindu Swastika had its start.

4. Animal Worship

The Harappan Civilization showed evidence of animal worship, as depicted in their seals, sealings, and terracotta figures. For instance, a seal from Chanhudaro portrays a bull-bison with an erect penis fertilizing a human figure lying on its back, with a plant sprouting from the person’s head, suggesting a fertility cult. The Brahmani bull, known for its large dewlap, is also commonly depicted on the seals. It is possible that the modern-day practice of revering cows and bulls in India had its origins in the Harappan Civilization.

Types of Sculptures

1. Terracotta Figurines: Mother Goddess 

Many terracotta figurines have been found in the Harappan settlements, including depictions of females wearing a wide girdle, loincloth, and necklaces, as well as a fan-shaped headdress. Some of these figurines also feature infants or portray pregnancy, suggesting a strong emphasis on fertility and worship of mother goddesses. These findings provide evidence of the prevalence of cults devoted to fertility in the Harappan civilization. Some terracotta statuettes have been identified as representations of the “Mother Goddess,” and hence, fertility. This has prompted suggestions that there may be a connection between these statuettes and the Hindu Shakti tradition. Other academics, including David Kinsley and Lynn Foulston, accept the figurines’ identification but disagree with any firm proof connecting it to Shaktism. In her anthropological investigation of the Grmadevat tradition, Sree Padma discovers pre-Hindu roots, however, she does not clearly link it to the Indus Valley Civilization. 

2. Priest King 

The statuette found at the Mohenjo-daro archaeological site was originally discovered by Mackay, the lead archaeologist, to possibly represent a “priest.” John Marshall also believed it could be a “king-priest,” but it was Sir Mortimer Wheeler who first used the term “Priest-King” to support his theory that a ruling class was necessary for the development of urban complexities. The statuette is one of the “seven principal pieces of human sculpture from Mohenjo-daro,” and according to Parpola, it bears some resemblance to later Indian traditions of the priesthood.

3. Miscellaneous 

After the missing limbs of a broken stone sculpture were reconstructed, it was suggested that the sculpture could be depicting a dancer’s pose reminiscent of Nataraja. Additionally, a broken clay figurine that resembled Ardhanarishvara and had both male and female genitalia was found.

Types of Architecture 

1. Buildings

Kenower acknowledges that some large constructions could have served as temples, although their specific purpose remains uncertain. On the other hand, Possehl claims that there is no evidence of the existence of temples. While some scholars propose that the elevated citadel complex may have had a sacred function.
Scholars believe that several large buildings in the citadel and the lower town of Mohenjodaro were used as temples for gods. This is supported by the fact that most of the large stone sculptures were found in these buildings. In one of the buildings in the lower town, a seated stone sculpture of a man with a bearded face, a fillet passing over his forehead, and his hands on his knees was found on a raised platform accessed through a monumental entrance and a double stairway. Another stone statue was also found in the same building, leading scholars to identify it as a temple.

2. Stones

• Yonis: Marshall suggested that ovular limestone stones found in Harappan sites were symbolic representations of yonis, linking them to the cult of phallic worship in Hinduism. Many scholars considered the stones to be architectural and possibly from a stone pillar. Despite criticism, Marshall’s hypothesis gained acceptance in mainstream scholarship, but modern scholars now largely reject it.
• Lingams: Marshall believed that certain cone/dome-shaped stone pieces found in Harappan sites were abstract representations of lingams, similar to those in modern-day Hinduism. Despite criticism, Marshall’s viewpoint gained traction in scholarship. However, H. D. Sankalia rejected these identifications by pointing out that these stones were typically found in streets and drains, which would not be appropriate locations for objects with a sacred connotation. Srinivasan also rejected Marshall’s arguments, noting that the appearance of lingams became more realistic over time, contradicting the expected presentation during the Harappan era. Furthermore, ancient lingam sculptures are primarily found in the Brahminical heartland of India, rather than in IVC/post-IVC sites.

3. Great Bath 

Several structures have been discovered in the citadel mound of Mohenjodaro that appear to have had religious significance, with the most prominent being the Great Bath. The elaborate bathing facilities found in this structure suggest that it had an important ritual purpose, similar to the bathing practices observed at sacred sites in later periods of Indian history. Therefore, it is believed that the Great Bath was not just a place for swimming but was also significant for religious ceremonies. Certain scholars, following Marshall’s views, suggest that the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro was a precursor to the ritual bathing practices that are central to Hinduism. However, Doniger disagrees with this hypothesis, stating that the Great Bath only implies that the Harappans had a preference for water and bathing. On the other hand, Possehl finds Marshall’s theory about the Great Bath having a ritual purpose to be convincing

The Burial of the Dead

The disposal of the deceased has held great significance in the religious practices of human societies throughout history, as it is tied to their beliefs regarding the afterlife. Although the Harappan civilization did not produce monumental burial sites like the pyramids of Egypt or the Royal cemetery of the Mesopotamian city of Ur, there are still some indications of their burial practices.

The Harappan civilization had a variety of burial practices, with graves discovered in Harappa showing bodies laid on their backs in a north-south orientation and surrounded by earthen pots, ornaments such as shell bangles, necklaces, and earrings, and sometimes copper mirrors, mother of pearl shells, and antimony sticks. Some graves were even constructed with bricks, and a coffin burial was discovered at Harappa. At Kalibangan, circular pits containing large urns accompanied by pottery were found, but with no skeletal remains. Other burial pits contained collected bones. Lothal yielded pairs of skeletons, male and female, buried together.

The burial practices of the Harappans differed from the ones followed in later historical periods, where cremation was predominant. However, the fact that the bodies were carefully placed with ornaments and toiletries suggests a belief in life after death. The specifics of this belief are unknown to us.

According to archaeological evidence, the Harappan civilization had varying religious practices across different regions. For instance, fire worship was observed in Kalibangan and Lothal but not in Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Mohenjodaro had ritual bathing, whereas Harappa may not have had it. Burial practices also varied greatly, from extended inhumation to pot and double burials. In Kalibangan, even different burial practices were observed in the same settlement. This religious diversity in urban centers reflects their complex nature, unlike tribal societies where everyone follows the same religious practices. Urban centers were formed through the integration of various social groups and the presence of traders from different regions with their own religious practices. These groups retained their customs but lost their political and economic independence.